Higgs Boson- Mystery Behind:

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God’s Particle found-This statement has been doing rounds for the past 5-6 months. I tried to understand this mystery myself, ending in this. Think this can provide a general idea about the topic.

Let us a start with the basic history towards the GOD.

Standard model:

§  The standard model, a work of many physicists of the 20^th century is by far the most successful model of particle physics.

§  A theory giving the nuances of electromagnetic forces, weak and strong nuclear interactions, governing the dynamics of subatomic particles, was compiled around 1970s.

§  Generally we know there are two kinds of particles, elementary i.e they are the most basic which cannot be further divided and composite particles that are made up of combinations of elementary particles. 

§  Standard model divides these fundamental particles in to fermions and BOSONS based on a physical property (like mass, shape) called spin (rotation about an axis), i.e Bosons have integer spin (0, 1, 2) and fermions have half integer spin (1/2, 3/2).

§  Standard model gives that all material around us is made up of 12 matter particles(also called fermions) which includes particles called quarks and leptons (electron is one amongst leptons) their interactions governed by four fundamental forces (Electromagnetic, gravity etc.) (BOSONS are involved here).

§  Bosons are seen force carrier particles by the standard model, examples of which include particles like gluons, photons, Higgs boson.

What is CERN, the large Hadron collider all about:

· The European Organization for Nuclear Research also known as CERN is the world’s largest nuclear physics laboratory carrying out various experiments, situated at Geneva, along France-Swiss border.
·  It has been operating several particle accelerators the latest one being the Large Hadron collider.

·  Particle accelerators are devices to accelerate particles to high energies for atomic and nuclear studies. They work on the same principle of CRT of your television, wherein a beam of electrons coming out of heated filament is accelerated by an electric field meanwhile a magnetic field focusses it in to a narrow one.

· These accelerators may be circular where the beam is energized in stages, travelling in loops or linear travelling in straight paths.

· The large Hadron collider is one such particle accelerator where two beams of sub atomic particles –hadrons or lead ions are accelerated to speeds nearing speed of light using superconducting coils and magnets and are made to collide.

· This collision is sought to emulate the Big bang which created the universe and study the particles which will be emitted during the collision using particle detectors.

Finally we are on to the GODs particle:

·         The standard model defined all the forces of nature but found no place to incorporate the phenomenon of mass for particles.

·         This was overcome when three scientists Peter Higgs, Robert Brout and Francois Englert put that after Big bang particles had no mass, after some time as the universe cooled an invisible field called Higgs field which was present everywhere was formed.

·         Particles which interacted with this field gained mass in proportion to their interaction. More interaction more mass, no interaction no mass at all.

·         Now this was a hypothesis, scientists are yet to find this particle study its characteristics. Scientists believe if at all higgs boson exists it should be emitted during the collision experiments of Hadron collider.

·         Another problem these higgs particles are said to decay immediately after collisions and they are expecting only to find their footprints. Recently they have announced only such an approximation ”a particle with similar properties of higgs found, have to be confirmed with further experimentation”.

·         If scientists fail in this attempt probably the next generation has to study an entirely new physics book devoid of standard model.

Some other Facts relating to CERN:

·         Not only hadron collider six other experiments are currently going on in CERN under international collaborations:

ALICE	·         To study quark gluon plasma. ·         Atoms made of protons and neutrons, which in turn are held together by quarks. ·         At ALICE collisions under very high temperatures are expected to melt the protons, neutrons releasing the quarks, which ALICE is expected to study.
ATLAS	·        General purpose detector ·        To study higgs and various other mechanisms
CMS	·        Compact Muon solenoid ·        To study Higgs, extra dimensions and dark matter.
LHCb	·        Large Hadron collider beauty: ·        To study b quark, anti-matter.
TOTEM	·        TOTal Elastic and Diffractive Cross Section measurement ·        To study forward particles not available to general experiments.
LHCf	·        Large hadron collider hadron forward ·        To study cosmic rays under laboratory conditions.

·         Indian connection:

o    We now have Archana sharma a scientist of Indian origin, working at CERN involved in CMS experiment over there. She has been involved in this since 1987.

o   The very name Boson is given in honour of satyendranath bose an Indian Mathematical physicist who along with Einstein was instrumental in defining characteristics of bosons. Satyendranath Bose born on 1 January 1894 in Kolkata.  He was awarded India's second highest civilian award, the Padma Vibhushan in 1954 by the Government of India.

Basics:

Big Bang:(Wiki)

                    The Big Bang theory is the prevailing cosmological model that explains the early development of the Universe. According to the Big Bang theory, the Universe was once in an extremely hot and dense state which expanded rapidly. This rapid expansion caused the Universe to cool and resulted in its present continuously expanding state. According to the most recent measurements and observations, the Big Bang occurred approximately 13.75 billion years ago, which is thus considered the age of the Universe.      

       

Presidential Election

Shri Pranab Mukherjee and Shri Purno Sangma all set to contest the presidential election on 19.07.2012.

The Parliamentary System and India:

• Countries follow Presidential, Parliamentary, sometimes even Semi Presidential systems of government. These are classified based on the relationships between the top positions of the government.
• A presidential system like the one practiced in USA vests entire executive powers with the President who forms the Head of the state as well as the Head of the government.
• A parliamentary system like India adopts a ceremonial position for the President. Some nations like UK have a hereditary Presidentship falling under Constitutional monarchy, while India is a Republic having elected President.
• Thus Indian system has President as the Head of the state while the Prime minister forms the Head of the Government,wielding real executive powers.

 Election of the President:

• With the election of president round the corners, a little introspection will help us understand the process.
• We have adopted an Indirect election for the President, i.e., no direct voting I will not have a direct say in who becomes the president of my country, my representative indeed decides who sits in that position.
• Eligible members to vote:(Article 54)
• Elected MPs of both the houses of the parliament (Rajya Sabha and Loksabha)(nominated members not permissible).
• Elected MLAs and MLCs(if applicable) of all states.
• Elected MLAs of Delhi and Pondicherry.
• To ensure uniformity in representation amongst states in electing such an important position, MLAs MPs, MLCs are not given single or equal votes. Number of votes varies in accordance with population.
• For Example Value of 1 MLA= Total population of a state/(Total number of elected members in the legislative assembly X 1000) (number of votes he possesses).
•  Value of an MP= Total values of all MLAs of all states/ Total number of elected members of the Parliament.

Who is in-charge of this Election:

• The election commission of India is mandated under the constitution article 324, to conduct the elections for the post of President.
• The manner of election is proportional representation by means of single transferable vote, conducted by a secret ballot.(specified in article 55 of the constitution).

Can I become the President:

Yes If I satisfy:

• Indian Citizen
• Should have completed 35 Years of age.
• Should be eligible to become a member of Loksabha.
• Not hold any Office of profit.
• At-least have  50 members of Parliament, to propose my name and 50 others as seconders.
• Should deposit Rs.15000 as security deposit in Reserve bank of India.

What is the power that our President has:

• Though a ceremonial position the post of Presidentship is endowed with various powers, to name a few:
• All Executive decisions of the government taken in his name, he appoints the Prime minister, chairman of various commissions like Election commission, CAG, Union public service commission etc.,
• He has power to summon, prorogue the sessions of  both the houses of the parliament, nominates 12 members to Rajya sabha, 2 members to loksabha, has powers to veto bills,promulgate ordinances etc.,
• He lays the budget before the parliament for approval, constitutes the finance commission every five years.
• He appoints the chief justice of India, can seek advice from the supreme court on any question of law (constitutional reference).
• Has powers to grant pardons, reprieve, respite, remission, commute a sentence.
• International treaties are negotiated on his behalf, and is the supreme commander of the defence forces of India.
• Thus the president who is the first citizen, plays a central role in the executive wing.

Can He  Resign, be Removed:

•  Normally his tenure is for a period for 5 years, but he can resign by addressing to the Vice president, who should communicate it to the speaker of the loksabha.
• Also he can be removed from his office by the parliament for violation of the constitution.
• Procedure for removal:
• A resolution for the purpose forwarded by at least one-fourth of the total members of the house initiating the charges, after fourteen days notice. 
• Such a resolution should be voted and passed by at least two-thirds of total membership of the house.
• After the initiating house passes the other house(loksabha /rajyasabha) investigates the charges, here the president can appear and defend himself.
• If after investigation the charges are sustained and the resolution is passed by two-thirds majority of the membership of the house, then the president stands removed.

 Basics:

Proportional representation by means of single Transferable vote:

                 This is a system of preferential voting, wherein the voters rank all the contestants of the election in a order of their choice to be elected. A candidate to be elected should get the minimum quota of votes(total votes/(number of posts for which election is held+1)+1). The counting proceeds in rounds. If no candidate gets required quantum of votes then the candidate/s having least choice of first preference is first eliminated, their second choice votes are distributed to respective candidates and this process of elimination and redistribution proceeds are continued till only required number of candidate/s gets minimum quota of votes.

Veto???:

               Any Bill passed by the parliament can become an act only after it receives the assent of the president. The president here has veto powers(power to withhold assent) under article 111:

• Absolute Veto: Withholding assent to the bill
• Suspensive Veto: Which can be overridden by legislature by re-passing with ordinary majority.
• Qualified Veto: Requires special majority for overriding the veto of the president(not available in India)
• Pocket Veto: Taking no action on Bill passed by the parliament.

What is an Ordinance:(Article 123)

                  An ordinance is similar to an act/parliamentary law, only difference this is issued by president, when one or both the houses of parliament are not in session. This power of legislation is not a bypass to parliamentary law making and is not the discretion of the president. He acts on the advice of the Prime minister and the council of ministers, and is provided to meet any exigencies. An ordinance is temporary and ceases to operate unless approved by parliament within 6 weeks after its assembly. An ordinance can be withdrawn by the president, parliament(passing resolution to that effect). Ordinance making has been a controversy due to its misuse to forward executive decisions without meeting parliament.

Pardon???:(Article 72) 

                    Is a power on the president to reduce, change the nature of punishment, or completely acquit a person of his charges if he believes a judicial error has been committed or the punishment is unduly harsh. This power extends to reducing the death sentence issued to a person by a court of India(including Supreme court). Though a discretionary power this has to be be exercised on the advice of the union cabinet.